This review has identified some key areas to concentrate on JE in Bali, including: a structured surveillance program in the animal reservoirs or livestock, identification of the viral characteristics circulated in the area and its other potential mosquito vector involved, estimation of the disease burden in affected humans and animals, and initiation of collaborative approach in understanding the disease occurrence in the ecological environment and socio-cultural interaction. virus in certain mosquito species and high levels of seropositivity may be associated with greater risk of the virus transmission to the human population. It was also highlighted that local sociocultural practices for agriculture and livestock were potentially associated with the high density Phenytoin sodium (Dilantin) of the vector and the reservoirs, which then may lead to the risk of the disease transmission in the ecology of Bali. spp. are dominant [12,13], primarily [14,15]. This mosquito vector tends to breed and lay their eggs in irrigated rice paddy fields, associating this farming practice with the increased mosquito populations and subsequent increased risk of JE infection in humans [16]. JEV infection in humans is also associated with the infection in animals, especially pigs and wading birds. Both of the animals have an important role in the ecology of JEV [17]. birds, including egrets and herons, are the reservoir hosts of JEV [18,19]. Meanwhile, pigs act as amplifying hosts that producing large amounts of infectious virus during the viraemia phase, resulting in uptake of virus by feeding mosquitoes [20,21]. Most infected mammals and birds are asymptomatic or develop mild clinical signs such as resolving fever and inappetence, but in infected pregnant sows, the infection may result in abortion, stillbirth and congenital deformity [21,22]. Aside from birds and pigs, evidence of JEV infection has been reported in horses, Phenytoin sodium (Dilantin) dogs, cats, cattle, snakes, frogs, sheep, goats, monkeys, racoons, fresh water turtles and other birds including chickens and ducks [21,23,24]. The majority of these are dead end hosts, although ducks and chickens are suspected to have a role in disease transmission as they appear to develop viraemia to a sufficient titre to infect Phenytoin sodium (Dilantin) feeding mosquitoes [25C27]. Although the incidence of Japanese encephalitis disease has decreased globally due to implementation of vaccination programs, the disease is still a Phenytoin sodium (Dilantin) public health threat partly as a result of vector expansion due to climate change [8]. The virus is estimated to infect almost 68,000 humans each year [28] with approximately 75% of cases occurring in children and resulting in development of acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) [29]. The case fatality rate for the disease may reach 30%, and among those patients who survive 30C50% may develop long-term neurological sequelae [30]. In addition, the distribution of the vector and virus indicates around three billion people in the world are at risk of the infection [31], spanning countries in Oceania and Asia, including Indonesia [32]. Indonesia is recognized as a part of Indo-Malayan region where JEV is considered to have originated. The first JE infection was reported in the 1970s and the virus was successfully isolated. JE-related cases have been detected in 29 out of 34 provinces, including the province of Bali [13]. In Bali, clinical and confirmed cases of JEV infection in humans were reported in 2014 increasing until early 2018 when the national vaccination program against JEV in humans was firstly implemented in Bali in March 2018 [33]. However, vaccination in humans cannot eliminate the virus in the environment, as JE is a zoonotic disease with multifactorial elements involved in transmission, such as human agricultural activities, animal reservoirs and the mosquito vector interact in a socio-cultural-environmental ecology. This review was conducted to assess JE-related cases in humans, animals and their determinants, and detection in vectors, including socio-cultural practices of the Balinese, which may associate with the potential risk of Japanese encephalitis infection in the area. 2.?Methods Published articles on JEV that reported predominantly in Indonesia and more Rabbit polyclonal to ZNF76.ZNF76, also known as ZNF523 or Zfp523, is a transcriptional repressor expressed in the testis. Itis the human homolog of the Xenopus Staf protein (selenocysteine tRNA genetranscription-activating factor) known to regulate the genes encoding small nuclear RNA andselenocysteine tRNA. ZNF76 localizes to the nucleus and exerts an inhibitory function onp53-mediated transactivation. ZNF76 specifically targets TFIID (TATA-binding protein). Theinteraction with TFIID occurs through both its N and C termini. The transcriptional repressionactivity of ZNF76 is predominantly regulated by lysine modifications, acetylation and sumoylation.ZNF76 is sumoylated by PIAS 1 and is acetylated by p300. Acetylation leads to the loss ofsumoylation and a weakened TFIID interaction. ZNF76 can be deacetylated by HDAC1. In additionto lysine modifications, ZNF76 activity is also controlled by splice variants. Two isoforms exist dueto alternative splicing. These isoforms vary in their ability to interact with TFIID specifically in Bali were reviewed. Online search engines, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Portal Garuda and Indonesian Publication Index, were the databases that used to find the related articles. Keywords used were Japanese encephalitis, Flavivirus, Indonesia, Bali, epidemiology, distribution, risk factors, humans, vector, animals, ecology and social-culture. Hardcopies of Phenytoin sodium (Dilantin) related documents, including.